Virola elongata, V. theiodora
MYRISTICACEAE, Nutmeg Family
There are approximately one hundred known species of New World plants from which psychoactive compounds are obtained, and of these, hallucinogens, comprising one category of psychoactive compounds, have held an especially important place in the rituals of indigenous tribes. One particular hallucinogen, extracted from trees of the genus Virola, is widely used by groups in wet tropical forests of South America. These tribes include the Waika of the upper Orinoco area in Venezuela and northern Brazil and the Paumarí from near the Rio Purus in Amazonian Brazil.
Depending on locality, the snuff made from Virola carries the general names applied to all snuffs, such as ebene, epena, parica, yakawana, and nyakwana, among others. The rain forest harbors these trees, along with others used in hallucinogenic mixtures, and some villages are even located near natural groves to permit them to specialize in the trade of the Virola resource. Tribes have used Virola extensively both as part of their religious and shamanistic ceremonies as well as, over centuries, for recreation. As the outside world now has been contacting these tribes living in the Amazon, the existence and uses of plants, such as Virola, are just beginning to be understood.
Hallucinogenic snuff is based on the blood-red exudate from the secondary phloem, i.e., the inner bark. The red sap is a type of resin that is characteristic of the nutmeg family (Family Myristicaceae). One common method used by certain tribes starts with peels of Virola bark, carefully heated over a fire, usually by the shaman, to release the resin. Then in a small pot the shaman grinds dried leaves of Justicia pectoralis (Family Acanthaceae), a local shrub with aromatic as well as possible stimulant properties; these dried leaves are added to the resin with ash made from the tree Elizabetha princeps (Family Fabaceae). The mixture is kneaded until it has a putty-like consistency and then heated and ground into a fine powder. Powder is poured onto a large palm leaf, any extra debris is removed, and the powder is stored until used.
The Paumarí apparently do not limit themselves to using just bark exudate from Virola but may use other parts of the tree. Typically workers begin by scrapping the outer, dead bark and then cutting the inner bark into shreds. Bark shreds are toasted and dried over a fire, pulverized in a Brazil nut shell (the capsule of Bertholletia excelsa, Family Lecythidaceae), and sifted through a cloth. No other species are used as additives.
In Virola, the principal psychoactive ingredients are powerful tryptamine alkaloids and beta-carbolines. Tryptamines are present not only in the bark, but also in leaves, inflorescences, and roots. Justicia pectoralis has an aromatic aspect, but when added to Virola may facilitate the extraction of several tryptamine alkaloids and promote their absorption in human through mucous membranes. Thus, the admixture appears to aid and enhance the effects of the snuff on the user. Moreover, there is some speculation that the substance from Justicia might also be used independently as a less potent hallucinogen.
For the most part, men in these tribes are the only recipients of ebene, because women do not use the snuff. The ebene is usually blown by the shaman through a long pipe into each nostril--sometimes twice--of the awaiting user. The user immediately gets watery eyes and a profusely runny nose. The episode begins with excitability, followed by numbness, twitching of facial muscles, uncoordinated motor skills, and nausea accompanied with vomiting. Hallucinations then commence, occurring with frequent macropsia, which means the exaggeration of the size of perceived objects. As a result, individuals experience visions, which are an integral part of their religious teachings.
Whereas snuffing is the most common way to administer the drug, Virola can also be smoked by itself or as an additive to tobacco, especially Nicotiana rustica.
The use of Virola and, in fact, most other hallucinogens is central to many shamanistic teachings of Amazonian people. The shamans, key religious authorities, contact the spirits through the use of ebene, but the very experienced shaman does not require very much to be administered. Animals, plants, and the earth are apparently contacted and spoken to during these visions, and sometimes these "trips" are used in vision quests. After the snuff takes affect, the shaman sings increasingly louder and recites stories about various deeds, creations, and habits of the spirits. Through these visions, these forest people find connection with all that surrounds them, and thus feel like part of a universal whole.
Another consequence of the hallucinogen is the ability of individuals to release pent up emotions in an accepted manner. Individuals on snuff are considered by others as not being entirely in control of themselves; hence, they may demonstrate more obnoxious or violent tendencies than normally allowed. Also, under the drug's influence, exchanges of affections and emotions are accepted between individuals, whereas they would be inappropriate in a normal social context. This relaxing of the social rules explains the daily partaking of snuff in some tribes, i.e., frequent use of snuff outside of strictly religious settings supports the idea that these people use it as a way to expel daily frustrations. These snuffs comprise an essential part of their social framework and world vision.
Anne Swoboda. Biology 10, Winter 1998.